Object: The incidence of hydrocephalus requiring shunts in children with myelomeningocele (MMC) is reported to be very high. Shunt-related complications are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in this population. In order to minimize shunt placements, we used very rigid clinical selection criteria and followed them in all patients who had myelomeningocele and enlarged ventricles. The follow-up outcome of this retrospective study is reported. Methods: From 2000 to 2007, 23 patients with myelomeningocele and variable degree of hydrocephalus were treated at our institute with primary surgical closure of their myelomeningoceles without a CSF diversion procedure. Patients with severe hydrocephalus who required immediate shunt insertion, and those with no significant associated hydrocephalus were not included in this study. Data regarding the surgical results and complications, postoperative management, and the outcome at follow-up were obtained from their hospital records. Results: Initially increased size of the ventricular system was found to have decreased or stabilized in 17 (81%) patients postoperatively. However, ventriculomegaly continued to progress further in 4 (19%) out of 21 patients. Of 11 patients who presented with enlarged head, eight (73%) patients showed reduction or stabilization in their head circumference. Three (27%) children continued to have progressive head enlargement in the postoperative period and required shunt placement. Signs of raised intracranial pressure observed in six patients on admission, improved in two (33%) and persisted or worsened in four (67%) patients who eventually improved after the insertion of a shunt. Eight (35%) patients experienced wound-related complications following closure of the MMC, including CSF leak in four, wound infection in three, wound breakdown in three, and pseudomeningocele in two patients. Shunt placement was required in the postoperative period in 13 (56.5%) patients to treat raised intracranial pressure in 11 and CSF leak from the wound in two patients. Conclusions: Our experience suggests that the placement of shunts can be reduced by adopting a policy with strict clinical and radiographic criteria. Shunt insertion should be reserved for only those patients who have severe hydrocephalus with clinical features of elevated intracranial pressure. Mild to moderate ventricular dilatation, persistent ventriculomagaly, and some increase in ventricular size after myelomeningocele repair can be treated successfully without a shunt.

Background: Choroid plexus papilloma (CPP) is a benign neoplasm that arises from the ventricular choroid plexus. The clinical features, radiological characteristics, and treatment have been discussed in this study for a pediatric population. Methods: Over an eight-year period, seven pediatric (< 12 years) CPP patients were treated. Tumors were located in the lateral ventricle (n = 4), IVth ventricle (n = 2), and in both the lateral and IIIrd ventricles (n = 1). The patients presented predominantly with features of raised intracranial pressure. Total microsurgical excision was carried out in all cases. Results: There was complete relief of symptoms at follow-up in six patients. A 2.5 year-old child with a large trigonal CPP with hydrocephalus leading to complete visual impairment, died due to postoperative hypokalemia that caused ventricular fibrillation. One of our patients required a postoperative, permanent CSF diversion procedure while another required a subduroperitoneal shunt for persisting postoperative subdural CSF collection. Conclusions: Coagulation of the tumor under constant irrigation to shrink and excise it in toto, avoids excessive bleeding during surgery. The vascular pedicle supplying the tumor should be adequately dealt with during the last part of tumor removal as retraction of a bleeding pedicle may result in ventricular hemorrhage and brain edema. Following surgery, an external ventricular drain for three days helps in preventing the development of acute hydrocephalus in lateral ventricular lesions, and the color of the drained CSF gives an estimate of the ventricular hemostasis achieved. Total excision is usually possible in these cases with excellent postoperative outcomes.

Brain stem lesions are pathologically heterogeneous. Pre-operative radiological diagnoses prove to be wrong in 10 to 20% of cases. It is therefore imperative to have a tissue diagnosis for appropriate therapeutic measures. We report a series of 24 patients (14 males, ten females, age range: 6-17 years) CT guided stereotactic biopsy for brain stem lesions approached via the suboccipital transcerebellar route in semi sitting position with principle used to violate only one pial plane with the biopsy probe not entering the ventral surface of the cerebellum. The inclusion and exclusion criteria with detailed material and method are discussed. Histological diagnosis was established in 23 patients (96%) with no procedure-related mortality. Our results indicate that stereotaxic approach to brain-stem lesions provides a high yield of positive histological diagnoses with a low incidence of morbidity. Awake CT-guided stereotactic biopsy via the suboccipital transcerebellar route in a semi-sitting position is a safe, reliable, and effective method for brainstem lesions that can obtain adequate tissue for histological diagnosis, thus providing each patient with the best available treatment.

Infection of the central nervous system is a life-threatening condition in the pediatric population. Almost all agents can cause infection within the central nervous system and the extent of infection ranges from diffuse involvement of the meninges, brain, or the spinal cord to localized involvement presenting as a space-occupying lesion. Modern imaging techniques define the anatomic region infected, the evolution of the disease, and help in better management of these patients. Acute bacterial meningitis remains a major cause of mortality and long-term neurological disability. Fortunately, the incidence of infection after clean craniotomy is < 5%, but it leads to significant morbidity as well as fiscal loss. The most significant causative factor in postcraniotomy infections is postoperative CSF leak. Cerebral abscess related to organic congenital heart disease is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the pediatric population. The administration of prophylactic antibiotics is indicated for contaminated and clean-contaminated wounds.

Atypical antipsychotics are increasingly being associated with neurological side effects. Risperidone, quetiapine, and aripiprazole have been associated with tardive dystonia among other side effects. Similarly, olanzapine has also been associated with this troublesome effect. However, these reports are from cases of nonaffective psychosis, specially schizophrenia. Moreover, the usual age of onset of this neurological side effect has been reported to be in the midthirties or later. We present here a case of tardive dystonia associated with the use of olanzapine in an adolescent girl suffering from bipolar affective disorder. The slight reduction in the severity of the symptoms with the stopping of olanzapine and the reemergence of the full-blown symptoms with the reintroduction of olanzapine, suggest the contributory role of olanzapine.

Two clinical forms of rabies are recognize: i) a furious form associated with classical signs of excitation or phobic symptoms, ii) Dumb rabies (paralytic rabies) characterized by progressive paralysis without an initial furious phase wherein distinction from Guillain-Barrι Syndrome may be difficult. Paralytic rabies is more common in persons who have received postexposure vaccination. We report here the diagnostic dilemma of two cases of acute flaccid paralysis due to rabies.

Cerebral larva migrans (CLM) is an uncommon and rarely diagnosed entity. We report here a histopathologically proven case of CLM in a 13 year-old girl, who presented with bilateral focal seizures, right hemiparesis, and lapsed into altered sensorium prior to admission. Her CT scan was suggestive of a granulomatous lesion which eventually turned out to be CLM (toxocariasis). Interestingly, the lesion recurred after excision, with a confusing clinical picture. Following the second surgery, the pathology was reconfirmed and cure was provided for the disease. There has been no further intracranial recurrence during the past ten years although she developed cutaneous lesions.

Holoprosencephaly is usually associated with microcephaly, although macrocephaly is not uncommonly seen. However, the cause of hydrocephalus in holoprosencephaly remains ill-defined. Here, the authors report a case of CSF ascites following ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement in a five month-old child with alobar holoprosencephaly, and hypothesize that the excessive CSF production which occurs in this condition may be responsible for the formation of CSF ascites. Further research is required to assess whether the gene responsible for holoprosencephaly is also responsible for upregulating CSF production in patients with concomitant hydrocephalus.

The VP Shunt is a common pediatric surgical procedure in our country. Hydrocephalus is commonly associated with meningomyelocele in Arnold Chiari malformation-II and the ventriculoperitoneal shunt insertion is the common surgical procedure for the management of hydrocephalus. The standard protocol is to rule out any hydrocephalus by preoperative MRI. If associated with hydrocephalus, insertion of the VP shunt is indicated before the repair of MMC whereas the absence of hydrocephalus indicates that the surgical repair of MMC is to be undertaken immediately. Anesthetic management of the patient during the insertion of ventriculoperitoneal shunt may pose problems. We report here two cases of ACM-II (lumbar MMC with associated hydrocephalus) who had respiratory depression / delayed emergence after an otherwise uneventful procedure. Although the VP shunt (first procedure) required postoperative ventilation which improved later, the phenomena of respiratory depression / delayed emergence did not occur after the MMC repair (second surgery). The possible mechanisms involved in these events and their various clinical aspects are discussed below.